Crucifixion in the Roman Empire Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Crucifixion in the Roman Empire - Research Paper Example Thereafter, the cross, along with the convict, was erected vertically on the ground and it remained in that position until after the criminal was confirmed dead. However, it is believed that some of the crosses were fixed permanently on the ground to serve as a constant reminder to the passersby and local inhabitants that death by crucifixion was the ultimate destiny for criminals (Hewitt, 1932). Death through crucifixion is a slow process and as such, it took a long time, depending on the health of the victim, for it to be achieved. It is claimed that some of the persons remained alive for more than 2 days while others succumbed to death in a matter of hours. However, it is notable that some of the guards assigned with the task of crucifying and guarding the convict utilized several tactics to hasten the death and to reduce the chances of the convict surviving the ordeal (Hengel, 1989). For example, before crucifixion, these guards ensured that the convict was weakened through harsh beatings concentrated on weak points such as the chest, the head, and limb joints among others, which subjected the criminal to low chances of survival even if the process was abandoned half way. In addition, the guards facilitated a quick and painful death by ensuring that while nailing the victim, the nails went through major bones on the legs, tibia and fibula, to break them thereby weakening the functioning of the body. Some of the texts also suggest that, due to the weakness of the palm flesh to sustain the weight of the body, there is a logical reason to believe that the nails on the hands were driven through the radius and the ulna, which are the two major bones that connect the palms to the elbow joints. Otherwise, the only other possibility was to increase support by tying the nailed hands to the cross (Tzaferis, 1985). It is also evident that Roman executioners hastened the death of the victim by spearing him in the chest. One of the major historical and biblical figures to die in the hands of Roman executioners through crucifixion was Jesus, who was crucified for treason. Jesus was perceived as a threat to the leadership of the roman emperor, Tiberius Caesar, by claiming that he was the king of the Jews and that there was another greater kingdom than the Roman empire, which belonged to his father. He was also accused of blasphemy due to his claims that he was the son of God yet he was a man with flesh and blood and therefore no different from other humans (Hengel, 1989). According to Jewish beliefs, crucified persons were not supposed to remain on the cross on the Sabbath day, which is equivalent to Saturday on the Gregorian calendar, and therefore it had been ordered that all the people crucified together with Jesus had to have their legs broken so as to ensure that they died on that very day. It is important to note that while hanging on the cross, the crucified persons had a chance of prolonging their death by supporting themselves with the legs thus reducing muscle tension created by the force of gravity. However, when it was the turn for Jesus to have his legs broken, the guard realized that he was already dead but to be sure, he pierced him on the chest with a spear (Hewitt, 1932). The crucifixion of Jesus also makes it clear that the Romans crucified their victims without their clothes on. To

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 15

Business - Essay Example We understand that these days multinational companies have a tendency to transfer their manufacturing facilities to third world countries, where working conditions do not always reflect the global principles of human rights. In order to fight the problem of discrimination all of the four businesses of our company - Veolia Water, Veolia Environmental Services, Veolia Energy and Veolia Transport – are promoting diversity at work, as well improving labor relations and fair compensation. A "Diversity Label" award of France we received in 2010 serves us as a signification of the fact that our efforts have brought the desired results. We are eagerly employing and developing careers of women, older people, people with disabilities and people of different ethnical backgrounds (An attractive social policy 2011). Unfortunately, the situation is not similar in all the companies. The famous Wal-Mart case firing a disabled man who had worked for the company for eight years is an example of totally irresponsible treatment of employees (Convey 2011). The company was sued and, as a result, customer loyalty got decreased, respect of stakeholders lost and social disapproval arose. As for promoting greater environmental responsibility, Veolia has developed and is implementing biodiversity and resource conservation and health and living environment protection programs. Veolia Water reduces the waste of water and develops the recycling technologies of water. Veolia Environmental Services focus on reducing the pollutant load of waste and protect environment. Veolia Energy focuses on pollution emission treatment, and Veolia Transport ensures the order of public transport (Business Activities 2011). However, we do understand that, though we take actions for protecting the environment, we should pay more attention to actual promotion of greater environmental responsibility. A good example of

5 Paragraph Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

5 Paragraph - Essay Example All utility things like automobiles, washing machine, refrigerators etc. breaks down when they are most needed. Indeed, the uncanny coincidence of their breakdown forces one to realize that these objects have a mind of their own which they use for optimal impact against man. Things like personal items have innate tendency of getting lost at the eleventh hour! Gloves, pliers, keys of car, house, locker etc. tend to disappear from their normal place when they are needed urgently. Interestingly, they are often found in the places least expected like the long forgotten corner of the wardrobe or under the mattress of unused bed. How and when they get to be there has remained the mystery for all. Most profound is the knowledge of the objects which refuse to perform their duty once they are brought home by their masters. Cigarette lighters, toys, car clocks etc. are major items that only work once and thereafter refuse to show their talent again. This is perhaps the only category of objects that man has been able to demystify and therefore is less likely to get upset with. One can therefore succinctly state that society of inanimate objects has been successful in declaring their hostility against man. Objects of first two categories show that inanimate things are psychologically much advanced and know how to test human patience or indeed, increase their blood pressure to achieve their objective. Man needs to be much more aware of their cunning intentions so that he is equipped with alternatives that would defeat the evil intentions of the inanimate

Sodium acetate Essay Example for Free

Sodium acetate Essay Claim: Relatively pure isoamyl acetate was isolated by elimination reaction as compared to the SN2 reaction. Evidence1: A flask containing isoamyl bromide (6 ml, 0. 050 mole) and potassium acetate (6 g, 0. 05 mole) in 10 ml of dimethyl formamide was positioned in a steam bath and then mounted on a magnetic stirrer. The mixture was heated and magnetically stirred simultaneously for two hours. A white precipitate was found at the bottom of the solution. The mixture was set to cool and 15 ml of cool water was then added to the mixture. The entire precipitate dissolved in the mixture and the content of the flask now got transformed into a clear colorless solution. The mixture was then washed with 15 ml of ether. The lower, aqueous layer in the flask was drawn off and the ethereal was again washed by 5 ml of water. The ethereal was then dried using magnesium sulfate and the ethereal was then gravity filtered. The ether was completely removed by simple distillation1 using steam as a source of heat. The residual crude isoamyl acetate was isolated by simple distillation using a flame as a heat source. Isoamyl acetate; 4. 721 g, 36. 3 mmole, 72. 6 % recovery, B. p= 137? C – 142? C (lit=142? C2). The isoamyl acetate was then tested by infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy); C-H stretch: below 3000 cm, C=O stretch: 1750 cm, C-O stretch: 1250 cm (Appendix 1, 2) Discussion: Isoamly acetate was isolated by SN2 nucleophilic substitution method. It was observed that the Nucleophile, acetate ion directly displaced the bromide ion by substitution. The experiment used potassium acetate rather than sodium acetate. Potassium is larger and less dense than sodium so that the acetate ions more readily take part in the reaction. DMF, a polar aprotic solvent, was used to destabilize the nucleophile that catalyzes the reaction by lowering energy. After the mixture was cooled, water was added to the mixture in order to avert a reverse reaction. The mixture was washed with ether in order to maximize the yield of the produce by the process of dehydration. Any presence of water would cause the reverse reaction, thus minimizing the yield. isoamly acetate was also isolated by elimination reaction, technically termed as fisher esterification. The fisher esterification was favored over SN2 reaction in this experiment. A flame was used as a heat source in the elimination reaction while a steam was used as a heat source in the Sn2 reaction. At higher temperatures, molecules acquire enough energy to climb the energy barrier. This barrier level will be too high to cross at lower temperatures.

The Rationality Of Azande Witchcraft

The Rationality Of Azande Witchcraft Rationality is the way in which we come to form our decisions and views, to say that something is rational, one might say that it is characterised by reason. Rationality arose in the 17th and 18th centuries when philosophers, such as Descartes and Locke, started declaring that the use of reason was the best method of obtaining objective truths. It was also at this time that science became central in Western thinking. The ability to reason was believed to be the one essential difference that separates man from other animals. As the importance of rationality grew in Western society other traditions and superstitions were deemed irrational and lost place in Western society. Things that were now unexplainable through rational means became invalid. Rationality is a vital concept to anthropologists as it has a tremendous impact on how they interpret the way of life for the culture that they are studying. In order to understand if Azande witchcraft is rational one must understand the backgr ound behind their beliefs and how they were formulated. In this essay I will be exploring the relationship between rationality and Azande witchcraft. Witchcraft may be defined as The use of supernatural powers for the purpose of obtaining and exercising control over other people, circumstances, or events. Witchcraft often poses problems anthropologists, as its supernatural nature is perhaps conflicting to the common Western notions of rationality, mainly deemed superior. E.E. Evans-Pritchard describes in great detail in his ethnography Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande, the beliefs and practices of the African tribe. In it he states how fundamental this witchcraft is everyday Azande life, saying it is apparent in their law and morals, etiquette and religion; it is prominent in technology and language. He even goes so far as to say that there is no niche or corner of Zande culture into which it does not twist itself. According to the Azande witchcraft is believed to be a substance in the belly, which is inherited from parents of the same sex. The substance can remain dormant, meaning someone might not know that they are a witch. However it is believed that sometimes this substance will act by striking someone the witch seeks revenge upon. Because witchcraft is believed to always be present, there are several rituals connected to protection from and cancelling of witchcraft that are performed almost daily. When something out of the ordinary occurs, usually something bad, to an individual, they may blame witchcraft, just as non-Zande people may say bad luck. Luck may be defined as an unknown and unpredictable phenomenon that causes an event to result one way rather than another. According to Azande belief, various misfortunes encountered in daily life may be attributed to the action of witches. Someone may fall ill, crops may fail or a hut may catch fire. Such events may be due to the magic of a witch who lives nearby. Azande witchcraft involves no rituals, spells or medicines. Evans-Pritchard describes it is a psychic act whereby the soul of witchcraft leaves a witchs body and travels over not too great a distance to interfere with its victim (1976: 10-2). Witches inherit the property of being a witch from a parent of the same sex. Their bodies contain a witchcraft substance found in their belly, which is what makes them a witch. After the death of a suspected witch, it may be determined whether they were indeed a witch by examining the contents of their intestines for the presence of witchcraft-substance (1976: 15-6). The poison oracle serves as a norm on the basis of which Azande accept beliefs about events which occur in daily life. This norm is different from any norm that we possess. However, it does not suffice for relativism merely to provide an instance of an alternative epistemic norm. It must also be argued that rational justification is relative to the norms that are in fact employed within different belief systems. The Azande employ a number of techniques to determine the action of unseen forces. One of these, which Evans-Pritchard calls the poison oracle, is used to answer a very broad range of questions not limited to witchcraft (1976: 122). The poison oracle is the preferred way for the Azande to determine whether a particular mishap is due to the action of a witch. In the poison oracle, a poisonous substance known as benge is administered to a chicken (1976: 134-8). A series of questions is posed. The chicken is either unaffected by the poison or, more frequently, has violent spasms. Sometimes the chicken dies. But just as often it survives. The manner in which the chicken reacts to the poison is interpreted as indicating the presence or absence of witchcraft. In certain circumstances, for example if a legal matter is at stake, poison is administered to a second chicken in order to confirm the result. When this is done, the questions are framed in such a way that, if the chicken dies the first time, the second chicken must survive, and vice versa. The Azandes use of the poison oracle is an example of an epistemic norm that differs from any norm that we employ.1 For the Azande, appeal to the oracle provides reason to believe that a particular occurrence either is or is not the result of witchcraft. The oracle serves as an epistemic norm which operates in Azande society as the basis for beliefs about witchcraft. In this paper, I will use the Azand e poison oracle as an example to illustrate the epistemological relativist claim that epistemic norms vary with belief system. Evans-Pritchard in his ethnographic text Witchcraft Oracles and Magic Among the Azande wrote about the Azande people of Sudan. The belief in witches and witchcraft was an integral part of Azande life at this time. Evans-Pritchard gives the example of when an old granary collapses, killing or injuring somebody resting beneath it. He stresses that Zande people know that termites eat away at the wood, and that in the heat the granary provides shade. The Azande people however seek to determine why at that point that particular granary fell on that particular person. The first port of call is always witchcraft because If there had been no witchcraft, people would have been sitting under the granary and it would not have fallen on them, or it would have collapsed but the people would not have been sheltering under it at the time. Witchcraft explains the coincidence of these two happenings. To the Azande people it is perfectly rational to suspect witches are responsible for these acts, as t hey believe that witchcraft existing is a self-evident truth. They do not question if witchcraft but rather how. A Western scientist would consider the non-existence of witchcraft to be a self-evident truth and therefore conclude something different, that the death was an accident. E. Mansell Pattison believes that the difference is not a question of rationality but rather à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦our differing construction of what reality is. ; the self-evident truths we hold, and it would seem these are not as objective as we like to think they are. The extract from EE Evans-Pritchards Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Amongst the Azande is a much-discussed text. It attracts attention both for its interesting account of the ways in which the Azande and in particular the Azande men see the world, take decisions and live in it, and for the methodological and philosophical questions that it raises. Throughout the book, Evans-Pritchard takes issue with Là ©vy-Bruhls belief that the savage thinks in a different way from modern men. The Azande may have a world-picture which is different from our own, but in their reasoning and in their actions, they are just as logical and just as reasonable as we are. Moreover, the customs which seem bizarre or mistaken to us are, in the end, just as useful as our own. The anthropologist says that he used the poison oracle himself, and that it proved as satisfactory a way of organizing his life as any other. In view of this, it is rather surprising to discover that the philosopher, Peter Winch, has argued that Evans-Pritchards account is flawed. It is flawed because, says Winch, in the end, the anthropologist subscribes to the view that Azande witchcraft beliefs, and their faith in the poison oracle are mistaken. The European adopts a scientific view where the Zande adopt a mystical one and, says Winch, for Evans-Pritchard, the European is right and the Zande is wrong. Now, I dont know about you, but, if this really is Evans-Pritchards position and Im not absolutely sure that it is then it seems, on the face of it, to be quite reasonable. I do not myself believe that feeding poison to a chicken will or can offer me any enlightening information about the behaviour or motives of my neighbours. Nor do I believe that anyone can affect my health or my emotions by casting a spell on me. Moreover, I am convinced that my belief is well-founded. It is, I will claim, a scientific view of things, and has behind it all the weight of the immense advances in human knowledge and control of nature that science has brought about. What, then, can Winchs objection be? In essence, Winch argues that it is mistaken to compare the scientific view-point and Azande witchcraft beliefs at all. It is, he says, a category-mistake. My conception of the mystical which I then dismiss as nonsense is different from the Zandes conception of the oracle or the witch. In fact, the problem is that I do not have the same category magic that the Zande possess, and so I mistakenly try to understand it by measuring it against a category that I do possess science. From this point of view, the Azande have a richer culture than I do: they have a primitive technical sphere which, although rudimentary compared to mine, is adequate to their needs. But they also have magic, which I do not. Magic gives them the tools with which to do things that I cannot do, to think about things that I cannot think about (I think I am paraphrasing Winch here). I look at the Zande accounts of oracles and of witchcraft with amused condescension. But the Zande may have more justification in looking askance at my own cultural poverty.

Municipal Budgeting and Revenue Essay -- Budget Finance Government Ess

Municipal Budgeting and Revenue Introduction Every government entity has a primary goal, which is to be as efficient and effective as possible while expending the smallest amount of resources. In addition, the resources expended cannot be more than the resources received as revenues. The budgeting process is a tool that assists government entities in being both efficient and effective. Before a budget can be adequately prepared, you must first understand the budgeting concept and secondly be knowledgeable of budget types. Local governments use budgets for a variety of reasons, including: accountability, planning, evaluation, and information. A municipal budget is a financial map to help guide public managers and administrators of a local government in a particular direction to function successfully in getting the work of its citizenry completed. The primary purposes of the governmental budget are to legitimize public expenditures and to account for and control the usage of public resources. As budgets evolve, officials find that the annual budget should be used for planning, coordinating, and scheduling programs. Demands on municipalities force them to engage in establishing priorities and monitoring how well the priorities are achieved. It is no longer possible for a municipal government to do everything for everyone. A municipal government must prioritize the services that are mandatory, urgent, and that are done well. Resources must be aligned with strategies and citizen’s needs by allocating them over some time frame; usually twelve months – a fiscal year. The budget communicates the objectives of the municipality to all of the stakeholders. Stakeholders in a municipality include the taxpayers that primarily fu... ...delivery they will provide in the expenditure side of the budget. Bibliography Allan, Ian J., Revenue Collection Administration, A Guide for Smaller Governments. Chicago: Government Finance Officers Association, 1993. League of California Cities, California Municipal Revenue Sources Handbook. Sacramento: League of CA Cities, 1995. League of California Cities, Financing Cities. Sacramento: www.cacities.org, 2000. Lehan, Edward A., Simplified Governmental Budgeting. Chicago: Municipal Finance Officers Association of the US and Canada, 1981. MacManus, Susan A., Revenue Patterns in US Cities and Suburbs: A Comparative Analysis. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978. National League of Cities, City Fiscal Conditions in 1999. Washington D.C.: National League of Cities, 1999. Swartz, Thomas R., Urban Finance Under Siege. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1993.

code of ethics :: essays research papers

What I have experienced over my 43 years of living, both personally and professionally, forms my thoughts, beliefs and feelings and therefore drives what I can call my personal code of ethics. The following briefly describes the core ideals that I maintain:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Honesty – I firmly believe that honesty is the best policy. It will have to be an extreme situation that involves serious injury, damage or other loss that will convince me that not being truthful is best. I realize that the truth can often be very painful, can cause anger, distrust and hatred but I feel that if I have been truthful and given someone all of the information, they will possibly hold me in a higher regard. This honesty will hopefully allow a greater trust between us and future dealings will be less likely to be strained.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Legal – I am a person that follows the laws of the land. I feel that it is wrong to steal, cheat, lie or mislead with the intent to make a personal gain. I strive to be a law-abiding citizen. I work in the pharmaceutical industry. The FDA code of regulations requires this industry to be very stringent in all that we do in the development and manufacture of drug products. This includes drug products for food and companion animals. Many times during the manufacturing process, conditions arise that would possibly render a product or process unsanitary or contaminated. Failing to stop a process and correct this type of situation is considered a federal offense and is a violation of the law that is punishable by jail. We have been trained to treat these conditions very seriously and follow regulations at all times. If we do not it is possible that someone could lose his or her life.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Empathy – When dealing with people and making decisions, I try to be empathetic and consider a person’s feelings and the effect my decisions could make on them and how they feel. I do not feel that it is acceptable for me to be responsible for anyone feeling badly.